In this vignette we show how the quanteda package can be used to replicate the analysis from Matthew Jockers’ book Text Analysis with R for Students of Literature (London: Springer, 2014). Most of the Jockers book consists of loading, transforming, and analyzing quantities derived from text and data from text. Because quanteda has built in most of the code to perform these data transformations and analyses, it makes it possible to replicate the results from the book with far less code. Throughout this vignette, we name objects based on Jockers’ book, but follow the quanteda style guide.

In what follows, each section corresponds to the respective chapter in the book.

1 R Basics

Our closest equivalent is simply:

install.packages("quanteda")
install.packages("readtext")

But if you are reading this vignette, than chances are that you have already completed this step.

2 First Foray

2.1 Loading the first text file

We can load the text from Moby Dick using the readtext package, directly from the Project Gutenberg website.

data_char_mobydick <- as.character(readtext::readtext("http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2701/pg2701.txt"))
names(data_char_mobydick) <- "Moby Dick"

The readtext() function from the readtext package loads the text files into a data.frame object. We can access the text from a data.frame object (and also, as we will see, a corpus class object). Here we will display just the first 75 characters, to prevent a massive dump of the text of the entire novel. We do this using the stri_sub() function from the stringi package, which shows the 1st through the 75th characters of the texts of our new object data_char_mobydick. Because we have not assigned the return from this command to any object, it invokes a print method for character objects, and is displayed on the screen.

library("stringi")
stri_sub(data_char_mobydick, 1, 75)
## [1] "The Project Gutenberg eBook of Moby Dick; Or, The Whale\n    \nThis ebook is "

2.2 Separate content from metadata

The Gutenburg edition of the text contains some metadata before and after the text of the novel. The code below uses the regexec and substring functions to separate this from the text.

# extract the header information
(start_v <- stri_locate_first_fixed(data_char_mobydick, "CHAPTER 1. Loomings.")[1])
## [1] 873
(end_v <- stri_locate_last_fixed(data_char_mobydick, "orphan.")[1])
## [1] 1219670

Here, we found the character index of the beginning and end of the novel, rather than counting the lines as in the book, but the result will be very similar. If we want to verify that “orphan.” is the end of the novel, we can use the kwic() function:

# verify that "orphan" is the end of the novel
kwic(tokens(data_char_mobydick), "orphan")
## Keyword-in-context with 1 match.                                                                     
##  [Moby Dick, 252772] children, only found another | orphan | .*** END

If we want to count the number of lines, we can do so by counting the newlines in the text.

stri_count_fixed(data_char_mobydick, "\n")
## [1] 22314

To measure just the number lines in the novel itself, without the metadata, we can subset the text from the start and end of the novel part, as identified above.

stri_sub(data_char_mobydick, from = start_v, to = end_v) |>
    stri_count_fixed("\n")
## [1] 21917

To trim the non-book content, we use stri_sub() to extract the text between the beginning and ending indexes found above:

novel_v <- stri_sub(data_char_mobydick, start_v, end_v)
length(novel_v)
## [1] 1
stri_sub(novel_v, 1, 94) |> cat()
## CHAPTER 1. Loomings.
## 
## CHAPTER 2. The Carpet-Bag.
## 
## CHAPTER 3. The Spouter-Inn.
## 
## CHAPTER 4. The

2.3 Reprocessing the content

We begin processing the text by converting to lower case. quanteda’s *_tolower() functions work like the built-in tolower(), with an extra option to preserve upper-case acronyms when detected. To work with the novel efficiently, however, we will first tokenise it. Then, we can manipulate it using functions such as tokens_tolower().

novel_v_toks <- tokens(novel_v)

# lowercase text
novel_v_toks_lower <- tokens_tolower(novel_v_toks)

quanteda’s tokens() function splits the text into words, with many options available for which characters should be preserved, and which should be used to define word boundaries. The default behaviour works similarly to splitting on the regular expression for non-word characters (\W as in the book), but it much smarter. For instance, it does not treat apostrophes as word boundaries, meaning that 's and 't are not treated as whole words from possessive forms and contractions.

To remove punctuation, we can re-process the existing tokens:

moby_word_v <- tokens(novel_v_toks_lower, remove_punct = TRUE)
(total_length <- ntoken(moby_word_v))
##  text1 
## 213374
moby_word_v[["text1"]][1:10]
##  [1] "chapter"    "1"          "loomings"   "chapter"    "2"         
##  [6] "the"        "carpet-bag" "chapter"    "3"          "the"
moby_word_v[["text1"]][99986] 
## [1] "teeth"
moby_word_v[["text1"]][c(4, 5, 6)]
## [1] "chapter" "2"       "the"
# check positions of "whale"
which(moby_word_v[["text1"]] == "whale") |>
    head()
## [1] 166 275 291 333 500 566

2.4 Beginning the analysis

The code below uses the tokenized text to the occurrence of the word whale. To include the possessive form whale’s, we may sum the counts of both forms, count the keyword-in-context matches by regular expression or glob. A glob is a simple wildcard matching pattern common on Unix systems – asterisks match zero or more characters.

Note that the counts below do not match those in the book, due to differences in how the book has split on any non-word character, while quanteda’s tokenizer splits on a more comprehensive set of “word boundaries”. quanteda’s tokens() function by default does not remove punctuation or numbers (both defined as “non-word” characters) by default. To more closely match the counts in the book, we have removed punctuation.

lengths(tokens_select(moby_word_v, "whale"))
## text1 
##   952
# total occurrences of "whale" including possessive
lengths(tokens_select(moby_word_v, c("whale", "whale's")))
## text1 
##   952
# same thing using kwic()
nrow(kwic(novel_v_toks_lower, pattern = "whale"))
## [1] 952
nrow(kwic(novel_v_toks_lower, pattern = "whale*")) # includes words like "whalemen"
## [1] 1676
(total_whale_hits <- nrow(kwic(novel_v_toks_lower, pattern = "^whale('s){0,1}$", valuetype = "regex")))
## [1] 952

What fraction of the total words (excluding punctuation) in the novel are “whale”?

total_whale_hits / ntoken(novel_v_toks_lower, remove_punct = TRUE)  
##       text1 
## 0.004461649

With ntype() we can calculate the size of the vocabulary – includes possessive forms, but excludes punctuation, symbols and numbers.

# total unique words
length(unique(moby_word_v))
## [1] 1
ntype(novel_v_toks_lower, remove_punct = TRUE)
## text1 
## 19975

To quickly sort the word types by their frequency, we can use the dfm() command to create a matrix of counts of each word type – a document-frequency matrix. In this case there is only one document, the entire book.

# ten most frequent words
moby_dfm <- dfm(moby_word_v)
moby_dfm
## Document-feature matrix of: 1 document, 19,975 features (0.00% sparse) and 0 docvars.
##        features
## docs    chapter 1 loomings 2   the carpet-bag 3 spouter-inn 4 counterpane
##   text1     308 3        2 2 14451          5 5           5 2           7
## [ reached max_nfeat ... 19,965 more features ]

Getting the list of the most frequent 10 terms is easy, using textstat_frequency().

##    feature frequency rank docfreq group
## 1      the     14451    1       1   all
## 2       of      6596    2       1   all
## 3      and      6395    3       1   all
## 4        a      4648    4       1   all
## 5       to      4585    5       1   all
## 6       in      4159    6       1   all
## 7     that      2941    7       1   all
## 8      his      2523    8       1   all
## 9       it      2389    9       1   all
## 10       i      1960   10       1   all

Finally, if we wish to plot the most frequent (50) terms, we can supply the results of textstat_frequency() to ggplot() to plot their frequency by their rank:

# plot frequency of 50 most frequent terms 
library("ggplot2")
theme_set(theme_minimal())
textstat_frequency(moby_dfm, n = 50) |> 
  ggplot(aes(x = rank, y = frequency)) +
  geom_point() +
  labs(x = "Frequency rank", y = "Term frequency")

For direct comparison with the next chapter, we also create the sorted list of the most frequently found words using this:

sorted_moby_freqs_t <- topfeatures(moby_dfm, n = nfeat(moby_dfm))

3 Accessing and Comparing Word Frequency Data

3.1 Accessing Word Data

We can query the document-frequency matrix to retrieve word frequencies, as with a normal matrix:

# frequencies of "he" and "she" - these are matrixes, not numerics
sorted_moby_freqs_t[c("he", "she", "him", "her")]
##   he  she  him  her 
## 1761  116 1051  326
# another method: indexing the dfm
moby_dfm[, c("he", "she", "him", "her")]
## Document-feature matrix of: 1 document, 4 features (0.00% sparse) and 0 docvars.
##        features
## docs      he she  him her
##   text1 1761 116 1051 326
sorted_moby_freqs_t[1]
##   the 
## 14451
sorted_moby_freqs_t["the"]
##   the 
## 14451
# term frequency ratios
sorted_moby_freqs_t["him"] / sorted_moby_freqs_t["her"]
##      him 
## 3.223926
sorted_moby_freqs_t["he"] / sorted_moby_freqs_t["she"]
##       he 
## 15.18103

Total number of tokens:

ntoken(moby_dfm)
##  text1 
## 213374
sum(sorted_moby_freqs_t)
## [1] 213374

3.2 Recycling

Relative term frequencies:

sorted_moby_rel_freqs_t <- sorted_moby_freqs_t / sum(sorted_moby_freqs_t) * 100
sorted_moby_rel_freqs_t["the"]
##      the 
## 6.772615
# by weighting the dfm directly
moby_dfm_pct <- dfm_weight(moby_dfm, scheme = "prop") * 100

dfm_select(moby_dfm_pct, pattern = "the")
## Document-feature matrix of: 1 document, 1 feature (0.00% sparse) and 0 docvars.
##        features
## docs         the
##   text1 6.772615

Plotting the most frequent terms, replicating the plot from the book:

plot(sorted_moby_rel_freqs_t[1:10], type = "b",
     xlab = "Top Ten Words", ylab = "Percentage of Full Text", xaxt = "n")
axis(1,1:10, labels = names(sorted_moby_rel_freqs_t[1:10]))

Plotting the most frequent terms using ggplot2:

textstat_frequency(moby_dfm_pct, n = 10) |> 
  ggplot(aes(x = reorder(feature, -rank), y = frequency)) +
  geom_bar(stat = "identity") + coord_flip() + 
  labs(x = "", y = "Term Frequency as a Percentage")

4 Token Distribution Analysis

4.1 Dispersion plots

A dispersion plot allows us to visualize the occurrences of particular terms throughout the text. The object returned by the kwic function can be plotted to display a dispersion plot. The quanteda textplot_ objects are based on ggplot2, so you can easily change the plot, for example by adding custom title.

# using words from tokenized corpus for dispersion
library("quanteda.textplots")
textplot_xray(kwic(novel_v_toks, pattern = "whale")) + 
    ggtitle("Lexical dispersion")
## Warning: Use of `x$ntokens` is discouraged.
##  Use `ntokens` instead.

To produce multiple dispersion plots for comparison, you can simply send more than one kwic() output to textplot_xray():

textplot_xray(
    kwic(novel_v_toks, pattern = "whale"),
    kwic(novel_v_toks, pattern = "Ahab")) + 
    ggtitle("Lexical dispersion")
## Warning: Use of `x$ntokens` is discouraged.
##  Use `ntokens` instead.

4.2 Searching with regular expression

# identify the chapter break locations
chap_positions_v <- kwic(novel_v_toks, phrase(c("CHAPTER \\d")), valuetype = "regex")$from
head(chap_positions_v)
## [1]  1  6 12 18 24 29

4.2 Identifying chapter breaks

Splitting the text into chapters means that we will have a collection of documents, which makes this a good time to make a corpus object to hold the texts. Initially, we make a single-document corpus, and then use the corpus_segment() function to split this by the string which specifies the chapter breaks.

Because of the header information, however, we want to discard the first part. We can do this by segmenting the text according to the first chapter, “CHAPTER 1. Loomings.”, which is preceded by 5 newlines.

chapters_char <- 
    data_char_mobydick |>
    char_segment(pattern = "\\n{5}CHAPTER 1\\. Loomings\\.\\n", 
                 valuetype = "regex", remove_pattern = FALSE)
sapply(chapters_char, substring, 1, 100)
##                                                                                               Moby Dick.1 
##  "The Project Gutenberg eBook of Moby Dick; Or, The Whale\n    \nThis ebook is for the use of anyone any" 
##                                                                                               Moby Dick.2 
## "CHAPTER 1. Loomings.\n\nCall me Ishmael. Some years ago—never mind how long precisely—having\nlittle or"
# remove header segment
chapters_char <- chapters_char[-1]

cat(substring(chapters_char, 1, 200))
## CHAPTER 1. Loomings.
## 
## Call me Ishmael. Some years ago—never mind how long precisely—having
## little or no money in my purse, and nothing particular to interest me
## on shore, I thought I would sail about

Now we can segment the text based on the chapter titles. These titles are automatically extracted into the pattern document variables, and the text of each chapter becomes the text of each new document unit. To tidy this up, we can remove the trailing \n character, using stri_trim_both(), since the \n is a member of the “whitespace” group.

chapters_corp <- chapters_char |>
    corpus() |>
    corpus_segment(pattern = "CHAPTER\\s\\d+.*\\n\\n", valuetype = "regex")
chapters_corp$pattern <- stringi::stri_trim_both(chapters_corp$pattern)
chapters_corp <- corpus_subset(chapters_corp, chapters_corp != "")

summary(chapters_corp, 10)
## Corpus consisting of 132 documents, showing 10 documents:
## 
##            Text Types Tokens Sentences                     pattern
##   Moby Dick.2.1   919   2507       101        CHAPTER 1. Loomings.
##   Moby Dick.2.2   655   1668        60  CHAPTER 2. The Carpet-Bag.
##   Moby Dick.2.3  1777   6785       263 CHAPTER 3. The Spouter-Inn.
##   Moby Dick.2.4   686   1878        54 CHAPTER 4. The Counterpane.
##   Moby Dick.2.5   405    848        29       CHAPTER 5. Breakfast.
##   Moby Dick.2.6   467    933        44      CHAPTER 6. The Street.
##   Moby Dick.2.7   519   1072        40      CHAPTER 7. The Chapel.
##   Moby Dick.2.8   479   1070        29      CHAPTER 8. The Pulpit.
##   Moby Dick.2.9  1268   4219       166      CHAPTER 9. The Sermon.
##  Moby Dick.2.10   660   1773        66 CHAPTER 10. A Bosom Friend.

For better reference, let’s also rename the document labels with these chapter headings:

docnames(chapters_corp) <- chapters_corp$pattern

4.4.5 barplots of whale and ahab

With the corpus split into chapters, we can use the dfm() function to create a matrix of counts of each word in each chapter – a document-frequency matrix.

# create a dfm
chap_dfm <- tokens(chapters_corp) |>
    dfm()

# extract row with count for "whale"/"ahab" in each chapter
# and convert to data frame for plotting
whales_ahabs_df <- chap_dfm |> 
    dfm_keep(pattern = c("whale", "ahab")) |> 
    convert(to = "data.frame")
    
whales_ahabs_df$chapter <- 1:nrow(whales_ahabs_df)

ggplot(data = whales_ahabs_df, aes(x = chapter, y = whale)) + 
    geom_bar(stat = "identity") +
    labs(x = "Chapter", 
         y = "Frequency",
         title = 'Occurrence of "whale"')

ggplot(data = whales_ahabs_df, aes(x = chapter, y = ahab)) + 
    geom_bar(stat = "identity") +
        labs(x = "Chapter", 
         y = "Frequency",
         title = 'Occurrence of "ahab"')

The above plots are raw frequency plots. For relative frequency plots, (word count divided by the length of the chapter) we can weight the document-frequency matrix. To obtain expected word frequency per 100 words, we multiply by 100. To get a feel for what the resulting weighted dfm (document-feature matrix) looks like, you can inspect it with the head function, which prints the first few rows and columns.

rel_dfm <- dfm_weight(chap_dfm, scheme = "prop") * 100
head(rel_dfm)
## Document-feature matrix of: 6 documents, 19,651 features (96.02% sparse) and 1 docvar.
##                              features
## docs                                call        me    ishmael        .
##   CHAPTER 1. Loomings.        0.03988831 0.9573195 0.07977663 3.191065
##   CHAPTER 2. The Carpet-Bag.  0          0.3597122 0.23980815 2.697842
##   CHAPTER 3. The Spouter-Inn. 0.01473839 0.6190125 0          3.345615
##   CHAPTER 4. The Counterpane. 0          1.0117146 0          2.715655
##   CHAPTER 5. Breakfast.       0          0.1179245 0          3.066038
##   CHAPTER 6. The Street.      0          0.1071811 0          4.180064
##                              features
## docs                                some      years  ago—never       mind
##   CHAPTER 1. Loomings.        0.43877144 0.03988831 0.03988831 0.03988831
##   CHAPTER 2. The Carpet-Bag.  0.05995204 0.05995204 0          0.05995204
##   CHAPTER 3. The Spouter-Inn. 0.25055269 0.05895357 0          0.04421518
##   CHAPTER 4. The Counterpane. 0.05324814 0          0          0.05324814
##   CHAPTER 5. Breakfast.       0.23584906 0          0          0         
##   CHAPTER 6. The Street.      0.10718114 0          0          0         
##                              features
## docs                                 how       long
##   CHAPTER 1. Loomings.        0.11966494 0.07977663
##   CHAPTER 2. The Carpet-Bag.  0.05995204 0         
##   CHAPTER 3. The Spouter-Inn. 0.05895357 0.14738394
##   CHAPTER 4. The Counterpane. 0.21299255 0.10649627
##   CHAPTER 5. Breakfast.       0.23584906 0.23584906
##   CHAPTER 6. The Street.      0.21436227 0         
## [ reached max_nfeat ... 19,641 more features ]
# subset dfm and convert to data.frame object
rel_chap_freq <- rel_dfm |> 
    dfm_keep(pattern = c("whale", "ahab")) |> 
    convert(to = "data.frame")

rel_chap_freq$chapter <- 1:nrow(rel_chap_freq)
ggplot(data = rel_chap_freq, aes(x = chapter, y = whale)) + 
    geom_bar(stat = "identity") +
    labs(x = "Chapter", y = "Relative frequency",
         title = 'Occurrence of "whale"')

ggplot(data = rel_chap_freq, aes(x = chapter, y = ahab)) + 
    geom_bar(stat = "identity") +
    labs(x = "Chapter", y = "Relative frequency",
         title = 'Occurrence of "ahab"')

5 Correlation

5.2 Correlation Analysis

Correlation analysis (and many other similarity measures) can be constructed using fast, sparse means through the textstat_simil() function. Here, we select feature comparisons for just “whale” and “ahab”, and convert this into a matrix as in the book. Because correlations are sensitive to document length, we first convert this into a relative frequency using dfm_weight().

dfm_weight(chap_dfm, scheme = "prop") |> 
    textstat_simil(y = chap_dfm[, c("whale", "ahab")], method = "correlation", margin = "features") |>
    as.matrix() |>
    head(2)
##           whale        ahab
## call  0.1003068 -0.03578342
## me   -0.1656477  0.07728298

With the ahab frequency and whale frequency vectors extracted from the dfm, it is easy to calculate the significance of the correlation.

5.4 Testing Correlation with Randomization

cor_data_df <- dfm_weight(chap_dfm, scheme = "prop") |> 
    dfm_keep(pattern = c("ahab", "whale")) |> 
    convert(to = "data.frame")

# sample 1000 replicates and create data frame
n <- 1000
samples <- data.frame(
    cor_sample = replicate(n, cor(sample(cor_data_df$whale), cor_data_df$ahab)),
    id_sample = 1:n
)

# plot distribution of resampled correlations
ggplot(data = samples, aes(x = cor_sample, y = after_stat(density))) +
    geom_histogram(colour = "black", binwidth = 0.01) +
    geom_density(colour = "red") +
    labs(x = "Correlation Coefficient", y = NULL,
         title = "Histogram of Random Correlation Coefficients with Normal Curve")

6 Measures of Lexical Variety

6.2 Mean word frequency

# length of the book in chapters
ndoc(chapters_corp)
## [1] 132
# chapter names
docnames(chapters_corp) |> head()
## [1] "CHAPTER 1. Loomings."        "CHAPTER 2. The Carpet-Bag." 
## [3] "CHAPTER 3. The Spouter-Inn." "CHAPTER 4. The Counterpane."
## [5] "CHAPTER 5. Breakfast."       "CHAPTER 6. The Street."

Calculating the mean word frequencies is easy:

# for first few chapters
ntoken(chapters_corp) |> head()
##        CHAPTER 1. Loomings.  CHAPTER 2. The Carpet-Bag. 
##                        2507                        1668 
## CHAPTER 3. The Spouter-Inn. CHAPTER 4. The Counterpane. 
##                        6785                        1878 
##       CHAPTER 5. Breakfast.      CHAPTER 6. The Street. 
##                         848                         933
# average
(ntoken(chapters_corp) / ntype(chapters_corp)) |> head()
##        CHAPTER 1. Loomings.  CHAPTER 2. The Carpet-Bag. 
##                    2.727965                    2.546565 
## CHAPTER 3. The Spouter-Inn. CHAPTER 4. The Counterpane. 
##                    3.818233                    2.737609 
##       CHAPTER 5. Breakfast.      CHAPTER 6. The Street. 
##                    2.093827                    1.997859

6.3 Extracting Word Usage Means

Since the quotient of the number of tokens and number of types is a vector, we can simply feed this to plot() using the pipe operator:

(ntoken(chapters_corp) / ntype(chapters_corp)) |>
    plot(type = "h", ylab = "Mean word frequency")

For the scaled plot:

(ntoken(chapters_corp) / ntype(chapters_corp)) |>
    scale() |>
    plot(type = "h", ylab = "Scaled mean word frequency")

6.4 Ranking the values

mean_word_use_m <- (ntoken(chapters_corp) / ntype(chapters_corp))
sort(mean_word_use_m, decreasing = TRUE) |> head()
## CHAPTER 135. The Chase.—Third Day.   CHAPTER 54. The Town-Ho’s Story. 
##                           4.110568                           4.069409 
##              CHAPTER 16. The Ship.        CHAPTER 3. The Spouter-Inn. 
##                           3.892216                           3.818233 
##              CHAPTER 32. Cetology.       CHAPTER 72. The Monkey-Rope. 
##                           3.662275                           3.585056

6.5 Calculating the TTR

Measures of lexical diversity can be estimated using textstat_lexdiv(). The TTR (Type-Token Ratio), a measure used in section 6.5, can be calculated for each document of the dfm.

tokens(chapters_corp) |>
    dfm() |>
    textstat_lexdiv(measure = "TTR") |>
    head(n = 10)
##                       document       TTR
## 1         CHAPTER 1. Loomings. 0.3893443
## 2   CHAPTER 2. The Carpet-Bag. 0.4330764
## 3  CHAPTER 3. The Spouter-Inn. 0.2900000
## 4  CHAPTER 4. The Counterpane. 0.4014599
## 5        CHAPTER 5. Breakfast. 0.5190736
## 6       CHAPTER 6. The Street. 0.5396040
## 7       CHAPTER 7. The Chapel. 0.5122732
## 8       CHAPTER 8. The Pulpit. 0.4862288
## 9       CHAPTER 9. The Sermon. 0.3350154
## 10 CHAPTER 10. A Bosom Friend. 0.4018088

7 Hapax Richness

Another measure of lexical diversity is Hapax richness, defined as the number of words that occur only once divided by the total number of words. We can calculate Hapax richness very simply by using a logical operation on the document-feature matrix, to return a logical value for each term that occurs once, and then sum these to get a count.

# hapaxes per document
rowSums(chap_dfm == 1) |> head()
##        CHAPTER 1. Loomings.  CHAPTER 2. The Carpet-Bag. 
##                         624                         443 
## CHAPTER 3. The Spouter-Inn. CHAPTER 4. The Counterpane. 
##                        1140                         472 
##       CHAPTER 5. Breakfast.      CHAPTER 6. The Street. 
##                         283                         346
# as a proportion
hapax_proportion <- rowSums(chap_dfm == 1) / ntoken(chap_dfm)
head(hapax_proportion)
##        CHAPTER 1. Loomings.  CHAPTER 2. The Carpet-Bag. 
##                   0.2489031                   0.2655875 
## CHAPTER 3. The Spouter-Inn. CHAPTER 4. The Counterpane. 
##                   0.1680177                   0.2513312 
##       CHAPTER 5. Breakfast.      CHAPTER 6. The Street. 
##                   0.3337264                   0.3708467

To plot this:

barplot(hapax_proportion, beside = TRUE, col = "grey", names.arg = seq_len(ndoc(chap_dfm)))

8 Do it KWIC

For this, and the next chapter, we simply use quanteda’s excellent kwic() function. To find the indexes of the token positions for “gutenberg”, for instance, we use the following, which returns a data.frame with the name from indicating the index position of the start of the token match:

data_tokens_mobydick <- tokens(data_char_mobydick)
gutenberg_kwic <- kwic(data_tokens_mobydick, pattern = "gutenberg")
head(gutenberg_kwic$from, 10)
##  [1]      3     60    142 252781 252879 252887 252894 252930 252977 253024

9 Do it KWIC (Better)

This is going to be super easy since we don’t need to reinvent the wheel here, since kwic() already does all that we need.

Let’s create a corpus containing Moby Dick but also Jane Austen’s Sense and Sensibility.

data_char_senseandsensibility <- as.character(readtext::readtext("http://www.gutenberg.org/files/161/161-0.txt"))
names(data_char_senseandsensibility) <- "Sense and Sensibility"

litcorpus <- corpus(c(data_char_mobydick, data_char_senseandsensibility))

Now we can use kwic() to find out where in each novel this occurred:

(dogkwic <- kwic(tokens(litcorpus), pattern = "dog"))
## Keyword-in-context with 17 matches.                                                                       
##              [Moby Dick, 17804]    all over like a Newfoundland | dog |
##              [Moby Dick, 32180]        was seen swimming like a | dog |
##              [Moby Dick, 59875]                   last. — Down, | dog |
##              [Moby Dick, 59976]          not tamely be called a | dog |
##              [Moby Dick, 60485]             didn’t he call me a | dog |
##              [Moby Dick, 86548]   sacrifice of the sacred White | Dog |
##             [Moby Dick, 124868]            life that lives in a | dog |
##             [Moby Dick, 124964]   the sagacious kindness of the | dog |
##             [Moby Dick, 158387] “ The ungracious and ungrateful | dog |
##             [Moby Dick, 158427]           Give way, greyhounds! | Dog |
##             [Moby Dick, 169591]             to the whale that a | dog |
##             [Moby Dick, 192660]     Aries, or the Ram—lecherous | dog |
##             [Moby Dick, 196112]                 . ( Bunger, you | dog |
##             [Moby Dick, 196573]              die in pickle, you | dog |
##             [Moby Dick, 197193]                Ahab, and like a | dog |
##             [Moby Dick, 238784]       air as a sagacious ship’s | dog |
##  [Sense and Sensibility, 77779]        fellow! such a deceitful | dog |
##                            
##  just from the water,      
##  , throwing his long arms  
##  , and kennel! ”           
##  , sir. ” “                
##  ? blazes! he called       
##  was by far the holiest    
##  or a horse. Indeed        
##  ? The accursed shark alone
##  ! ” cried Starbuck;       
##  to it! ” “                
##  does to the elephant;     
##  , he begets us;           
##  , laugh out! why          
##  ; you should be preserved 
##  , strangely snuffing; “   
##  will, in drawing nigh     
##  ! It was only the

We can plot this easily too, as a lexical dispersion plot. By specifying the scale as “absolute”, we are looking at absolute token index position rather than relative position, and therefore we see that Moby Dick is nearly twice as long as Sense and Sensibility.

textplot_xray(dogkwic, scale = "absolute")
## Warning: Use of `x$ntokens` is discouraged.
##  Use `ntokens` instead.

10 Text Quality, Text Variety, and Parsing XML

11 Clustering

Chapter 11 describes how to detect clusters in a corpus. While the book uses the XMLAuthorCorpus, we describe clustering using U.S. State of the Union addresses included in the quanteda.corpora package. We trim the corpus with dfm_trim() by keeping only those words that occur at least five times in the corpus and in at least three speeches.

library(quanteda.corpora)
pres_dfm <- tokens(corpus_subset(data_corpus_sotu, Date > "1980-01-01"), remove_punct = TRUE) |>
  tokens_wordstem("en") |>
  tokens_remove(stopwords("en")) |>
  dfm() |>
  dfm_trim(min_termfreq = 5, min_docfreq = 3)

# hierarchical clustering - get distances on normalized dfm
pres_dist_mat <- dfm_weight(pres_dfm, scheme = "prop") |>
    textstat_dist(method = "euclidean") |> 
    as.dist()

# hiarchical clustering the distance object
pres_cluster <- hclust(pres_dist_mat)

# label with document names
pres_cluster$labels <- docnames(pres_dfm)

# plot as a dendrogram
plot(pres_cluster, xlab = "", sub = "", 
     main = "Euclidean Distance on Normalized Token Frequency")

12 Classification

13 Topic Modelling

Finally, Jockers’ book introduces topic modelling of a corpus and the visualisation through wordclouds. We can easily apply functions from the topicmodels package by using quanteda’s convert() function. In our example, we use the Irish budget speeches from 2010 (data_corpus_irishbudget2010) and classify 20 topics using Latent Dirichlet Allocation.

data(data_corpus_irishbudget2010, package = "quanteda.textmodels")
dfm_speeches <- tokens(data_corpus_irishbudget2010, remove_punct = TRUE, remove_numbers = TRUE) |>
  tokens_remove(stopwords("en")) |> 
  dfm() |>
  dfm_trim(min_termfreq = 4, max_docfreq = 10)

library(topicmodels)
## Warning: package 'topicmodels' was built under R version 4.4.1
LDA_fit_20 <- convert(dfm_speeches, to = "topicmodels") |> 
    LDA(k = 20)

# get top five terms per topic
get_terms(LDA_fit_20, 5)
##      Topic 1       Topic 2     Topic 3     Topic 4    Topic 5       
## [1,] "kind"        "failed"    "taoiseach" "welfare"  "society"     
## [2,] "imagination" "strategy"  "employees" "system"   "enterprising"
## [3,] "policies"    "needed"    "referred"  "taxation" "sense"       
## [4,] "wit"         "ministers" "debate"    "deficit"  "equal"       
## [5,] "create"      "system"    "rate"      "child"    "nation"      
##      Topic 6      Topic 7    Topic 8     Topic 9    Topic 10      Topic 11   
## [1,] "welfare"    "welfare"  "fianna"    "fianna"   "support"     "taoiseach"
## [2,] "future"     "review"   "fáil"      "fáil"     "million"     "stimulus" 
## [3,] "continue"   "credit"   "worst"     "irish"    "investment"  "problem"  
## [4,] "employment" "spending" "education" "national" "development" "complete" 
## [5,] "forward"    "local"    "stimulus"  "support"  "level"       "able"     
##      Topic 12    Topic 13      Topic 14     Topic 15   Topic 16  Topic 17  
## [1,] "gael"      "alternative" "million"    "welfare"  "scheme"  "per"     
## [2,] "fine"      "citizenship" "measures"   "hospital" "irish"   "welfare" 
## [3,] "may"       "wealth"      "investment" "workers"  "day"     "child"   
## [4,] "taoiseach" "adjustment"  "spending"   "per"      "reduced" "recovery"
## [5,] "irish"     "breaks"      "scheme"     "million"  "benefit" "banks"   
##      Topic 18    Topic 19  Topic 20
## [1,] "child"     "benefit" "fianna"
## [2,] "care"      "child"   "fáil"  
## [3,] "allowance" "day"     "side"  
## [4,] "families"  "bank"    "level" 
## [5,] "fianna"    "fianna"  "third"